Hypochloremia
| Hypochloremia | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Chlorine | |
| Specialty | Endocrinology  |
| Complications | Metabolic alkalosis[1] |
| Causes | Vomiting, Diuretics[2] |
| Treatment | Treat underlying cause, salt and fluid intake[3] |
Hypochloremia (or Hypochloraemia) is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally low level of the chloride ion in the blood. Normal serum range for chloride is 97 to 107 mmol/L with levels less than 96 mmol/L defining hypochloremia.[4]
Hypochloremia can contribute to metabolic alkalosis. Patients with mild hypochloremia may be asymptomatic. In significant chloride depletion and the resulting alkalosis, symptoms may include neuromuscular irritability, such as muscle cramps, twitching, and, in severe cases, seizures.[1]
Treatment involves diagnosing the underlying cause. Mild hypochloremia may be corrected by salt intake. For more severe hypochloremia, IV fluids may be given.[3]
It rarely occurs in the absence of other abnormalities. It is sometimes associated with hypoventilation.[5] It can be associated with chronic respiratory acidosis.[6] If it occurs together with metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity) it is often due to vomiting.[2] It is usually the result of hyponatremia or elevated bicarbonate concentration. It occurs in cystic fibrosis.[7]
Causes
[edit]Gastrointestinal causes
[edit]- Gastric fluid loss – loss of hydrochloric acid from the stomach due to severe vomiting or nasogastric suction tube.[2]
- Congenital chloride diarrhea – rare autosomal recessive disease characterized by persistent, lifelong, watery diarrhea with high fecal chloride concentration.[8]
Renal causes
[edit]- Diuretic therapy – Thiazide diuretics and loop diuretics like furosemide inhibit chloride reabsorption causing hypochloremia and metabolic alkalosis. Thiazides block NCC and furosemide blocks NKCC2.[2]
- Chronic respiratory acidosis – Compensatory reabsorption of bicarbonate in exchange for chloride.[6][2]
- Bartter syndrome – Chloride wasting due to defective NKCC2 Symptoms similar to loop diuretic therapy like furosemide.[2]
- Gitelman syndrome – Chloride wasting due to defective NCC. Symptoms similar to thiazide diuretic therapy.[2]
Other causes
[edit]- Cystic fibrosis – Loss of chloride through excessive sweating due to defective chloride transport.[7]
- Excessive bicarbonate administration – Can dilute serum chloride and shift acid-base balance.[1]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c Sagar, Nandin; Lohiya, Sham (March 2024). "A Comprehensive Review of Chloride Management in Critically Ill Patients". Cureus. 16 (3): e55625. doi:10.7759/cureus.55625. ISSN 2168-8184. PMC 10995984. PMID 38586759.
- ^ a b c d e f g Berend, Kenrick; van Hulsteijn, Leonard Hendrik; Gans, Rijk O. B. (April 2012). "Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?". European Journal of Internal Medicine. 23 (3): 203–211. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013. ISSN 1879-0828. PMID 22385875.
- ^ a b "Hypochloremia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2025-05-04.
- ^ Pfortmueller, Carmen Andrea; Uehlinger, Dominik; von Haehling, Stephan; Schefold, Joerg Christian (April 2018). "Serum chloride levels in critical illness—the hidden story". Intensive Care Medicine Experimental. 6 (1): 10. doi:10.1186/s40635-018-0174-5. ISSN 2197-425X. PMC 5899079. PMID 29654387.
- ^ Lavie CJ, Crocker EF, Key KJ, Ferguson TG (October 1986). "Marked hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis with severe compensatory hypoventilation". South. Med. J. 79 (10): 1296–9. doi:10.1097/00007611-198610000-00025. PMID 3764530.
- ^ a b Levitin H, Branscome W, Epstein FH (December 1958). "The pathogenesis of hypochloremia in respiratory acidosis". J. Clin. Invest. 37 (12): 1667–75. doi:10.1172/JCI103758. PMC 1062852. PMID 13611033.
- ^ a b Scurati-Manzoni, Elisabetta; Fossali, Emilio F.; Agostoni, Carlo; Riva, Enrica; Simonetti, Giacomo D.; Zanolari-Calderari, Maura; Bianchetti, Mario G.; Lava, Sebastiano A. G. (June 2014). "Electrolyte abnormalities in cystic fibrosis: systematic review of the literature". Pediatric Nephrology. 29 (6): 1015–1023. doi:10.1007/s00467-013-2712-4. ISSN 0931-041X. PMID 24326787.
- ^ Abdullah AM, Shaheed MM, Katugampola SM, Patel PJ (March 1990). "Congenital chloride diarrhoea: case report and review of the literature". Annals of Tropical Paediatrics. 10 (1): 71–4. doi:10.1080/02724936.1990.11747412. PMID 1694648.
External links
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